Digital inequality and learning outcomes: evidence from Thailand

Abstract

Amidst Thailand’s declining performance in PISA reading assessments over the past two decades, this study examines how digital inequality influences student outcomes by integrating Digital Divide Theory with Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Using data from 8,507 students across 280 schools from the PISA 2022 assessment, we conducted multiple regression analysis to explore how first-level (access) and second-level (use and skills) digital divides interact with psychological factors, while accounting for socioeconomic disparities. The results reveal that although basic ICT access at home and school initially appeared beneficial, these effects diminished after controlling for usage patterns and socioeconomic background. In contrast, the quality of ICT access at school consistently predicted higher reading performance. General ICT use—particularly at school—was negatively associated with outcomes, while subject-specific ICT use was positively linked to achievement. Digital competence emerged as a positive predictor, whereas perceived autonomy in ICT use showed a consistent and unexpected negative association. Socioeconomic status significantly moderated these relationships, underscoring persistent educational inequalities. These findings suggest that Thailand’s hardware-heavy policy approach may not necessarily translate into improved learning outcomes. These findings highlight the need to shift from access-oriented policies toward strategies that emphasize quality infrastructure, structured pedagogical integration of technology, teacher professional development, and targeted support for disadvantaged students.