Health Risk Assessment of NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 Exposure in Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Chronic exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO<inf>2</inf>), particulate matter (PM<inf>2.5</inf>), and PM<inf>10</inf> can have negative impacts on both environmental and human health. This research aimed to determine the levels of NO<inf>2</inf>, PM<inf>10</inf>, and PM<inf>2.5</inf> pollution in Makassar City and to assess the potential health risks for children and adolescents using the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) probabilistic approach for exposure to these pollutants in Makassar City, Indonesia. This analytic, cross-sectional study employed an MCS approach to evaluate health risks. The results showed higher NO<inf>2</inf> levels of 10.88 µg/m³ and 10.97 µg/m³ at stations 12 and 17 in Panakkukang and Borong, located near a truck parking area. Meanwhile, stations 21 in Tamalanrea Indah and 20 in Karampuang recorded higher PM<inf>10</inf> levels of 24.8 and 30.14 µg/m³, respectively. The hazard quotient (HQ) was 12.4, 20.3, and 19.8 for NO<inf>2</inf>, PM<inf>10</inf>, and PM<inf>2.5</inf>, respectively. Among children at the 5th and 95th percentiles, cancer risks for NO<inf>2</inf> were 13 and 34, corresponding to medium risk levels. In contrast, adolescents showed cancer risks of 102 and 223, indicating high risks. For adults, the sensitivity analysis for NO<inf>2</inf> revealed that the most significant factor contributing to health hazards was the length of exposure (ED) at 26.4%, followed by pollutant concentration (C) at 18.3%, exposure frequency (EF) at 17.8%, and inhalation rate at 17.2%, as shown in the sensitivity analysis chart. Overall, adolescents faced greater risks than children, with the highest HQ values in children being 8.98, 15.2, and 22.5 for NO<inf>2</inf>, PM<inf>10</inf>, and PM<inf>2.5</inf>, respectively, which were lower than those observed in adolescents. The total hazard quotient (THQ) risks for NO<inf>2</inf>, PM<inf>10</inf>, and PM<inf>2.5</inf> were 12.4, 20.3, and 19.8, respectively. In conclusion, NO<inf>2</inf> and PM<inf>2.5</inf> pose significant health risks to adolescents.