Beyond words: the association of hugging with loneliness, social isolation, and social withdrawal. Evidence from the general adult population in Germany based on a cross-sectional survey

Abstract

Background: Thus far, no studies have focused on hugging and social disconnectedness outcomes comprehensively (loneliness, social isolation, social withdrawal) in the post-pandemic era. Our aim was to examine whether hugging is associated with loneliness, social isolation, and social withdrawal and whether these associations vary by gender. Methods: We used cross-sectional data collected via an online survey conducted in January 2025 (N = 3,270 adults aged 18 to 74 years across Germany). To ensure representativeness, a quota sampling method was employed based on gender, age, and federal state. Participants reported on their loneliness, social isolation, and social withdrawal and how many individuals they hugged each day. Linear regression models with robust standard errors were used. Results: After adjusting for multiple covariates, hugging on average one (or more) individuals per day (compared to lack of hugging) was associated with fewer feelings of loneliness, social isolation, and social withdrawal in the total sample. Among men, hugging was associated with reduced feelings of loneliness and social withdrawal but not social isolation; hugging was related to all three social disconnectedness metrics among women and the associations were stronger than for men, as indicated by corresponding interaction terms (hugging x gender). Conclusion: Our findings suggested an association between hugging frequency and measures of social disconnectedness, particularly among women. Efforts to increase the frequency of hugs, ideally to at least 2–3 individuals on average per day, may be beneficial for social outcomes, pending longitudinal and experimental evidence.