Electro-microbial destruction of ‘forever chemicals’: Recent advances and imminent challenges

Abstract

The widespread presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), or “forever chemicals,” poses significant environmental and public health challenges due to their persistence and toxic effects. Characterized by strong carbon‑fluorine (C[sbnd]F) bonds, PFAS resist natural degradation, leading to contamination of soil, water, and organisms. These synthetic compounds originate from various sources, such as industrial discharges, firefighting foams, and consumer products, with exposure routes including contaminated drinking water, food, and air. Risks associated with PFAS exposure include endocrine disruption, developmental disorders, immunotoxicity, and cancer, highlighting the urgent need for effective destruction technologies. This review evaluates advanced destruction methods for PFAS, focusing on microbial biotransformation, electrochemical degradation, and bioelectrochemical systems (BES). Microbial approaches utilize microorganisms to break down PFAS under anaerobic conditions, while electrochemical methods cleave carbon‑fluorine bonds through reactive species. BES combines microbial and electrochemical reactions for enhanced efficiency. Despite advancements, challenges remain, including incomplete defluorination, toxic intermediates, high costs, and scalability issues. This review addresses the mechanisms, advantages, and limitations of each technique, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary approaches to develop sustainable solutions. The findings aim to guide researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders in mitigating the impacts of forever chemicals on health and the environment.